Anonymous supplementary materials for peer review

Supplementary materials provided for anonymous peer review. The deposit contains supplementary tables, aggregate estimates underlying a manuscript figure, full single-unit omission sensitivity results, and code for reproducing the figure from the supplied aggregate estimates. No raw student-level PISA data are redistributed. The underlying data are publicly available from the OECD PISA 2025 database. This record is intended solely to provide editors and reviewers with access to the supplementary materials during peer review.