Supplementary Material for: High prevalence of low creatine intake among individuals following common special diets

Creatine, a conditionally essential nutrient primarily from animal-based foods, may be insufficient in certain dietary patterns. Using NHANES data (2003–2023), this cross-sectional study examined creatine intake in 8,407 individuals following special diets. Over two-thirds consumed less than one gram per day, with the highest prevalence in low-fiber (83.3%), high-fiber (82.1%), and gluten-free (79.2%) diets. These findings suggest a widespread risk of creatine insufficiency linked to restrictive diets. Given creatine’s role in energy metabolism and health, strategies such as supplementation or creatine-fortified foods may be warranted. Longitudinal studies are needed to guide intake recommendations and assess long-term outcomes.