Climatic changes and human activities amplify runoff variability in the lower reaches of major river basin

The contributions of climate change and human interference to runoff variation and their spatiotemporal differences have been examined in multiple independent unit catchment areas; however, comprehensive investigation into the interaction relationships between upstream and downstream sub-catchment areas is lacking. Here, we propose a new three-tiered framework for attributing runoff variation to investigate the spatiotemporal patterns, driving factors, and interaction mechanisms between upstream and downstream under climate change and human activities over a 70-year period (1952-2021) in the Yellow River Basin.