Results. Two-step GMM estimates of simultaneous equations. Dependent variable: Disease.

From left to right, the number of control variables increases in a stepwise fashion. The IVs for income are the variables that are in the income equation (listed in the corresponding columns in Table 4) but not in the disease equation here. Robust standard errors are presented in parentheses next to their corresponding coefficient estimates. First-stage F-test indicates strength of IVs if there is only one endogenous variable (income). If there are multiple endogenous variables (income and spatially lagged disease), Shea's Partial R2 indicates strength of IVs [75]. The institutions variable is not included as an IV for income and therefore 4b and 3b are identical. Bold indicates significance at the 10% level. n = 139.
IVVariable is instrumented.
JBased on Hansen's J statistic.
aUnits×10−2.
*p≤0.10.
**p≤0.05.
***p≤0.01.