Robust direct digital-to-biological data storage in living cells

DNA has been the predominant information storage medium for biology since the dawn of life and holds great promise as a next-generation high-density data medium in the digital era. Currently, the vast majority of DNA-based data storage approaches rely on in vitro synthesis of DNA strands as the key data encoding step. As such, there are limited methods to directly convert digital data into stored information on the chromosomes of living cells in a single step. Here, we describe a new electro-genetic framework at the interface of electronics and biology for direct storage of digital data in living cells without the need for in vitro DNA synthesis. Using an engineered CRISPR spacer acquisition system triggered by a redox-responsive biosensor, we could encode binary data in 3-bit units into CRISPR arrays of bacterial cells by direct temporal electrical stimulation. We demonstrate scalable multiplex data encoding into barcoded CRISPR arrays across cell populations to yield meaningful information storage and capacity up to 72 bits. Error correction mechanisms enabled robust recall of stored data, which can be maintained in cells over many generations in natural open environments. This work establishes a direct digital-to-biological data storage framework and advances our capacity for information exchange between silicon- and carbon-based entities.