European Lepidoptera–plant associations: a species-level interaction matrix

I present a large-scale matrix documenting plant–herbivore associations between 5,152 species of Lepidoptera and 3,275 species of vascular plants across Europe. The dataset is organized as a binary interaction matrix, in which each Lepidoptera species is represented by a row and each plant species by a column (1 = recorded larval association, 0 = no record). The compilation is based on an extensive review of published literature, monographs, publicly accessible online repositories, and grey literature, integrating a wide spectrum of sources. All taxonomic names were carefully curated and standardized following the most up-to-date classifications of both Lepidoptera and vascular plants. The matrix encompasses trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, including native, naturalized, ornamental, and invasive taxa as delimited by the European Environment Agency. The resolution of this matrix enable the examination of fundamental ecological and evolutionary questions, such as the prevalence and drivers of host specialization, the determinants of herbivore diversity, and the large-scale architecture of plant–herbivore networks. Because Lepidoptera are highly diverse and ecologically significant herbivores, the matrix provides a valuable foundation for assessing resource use and niche partitioning in relation to host traits, plant phylogeny, and biogeographic patterns. Beyond its relevance for basic ecological research, the matrix has strong applied value. It can be used to inform biodiversity conservation strategies, as identifying keystone host plants that sustain large numbers of Lepidoptera species, or by evaluating the vulnerability of herbivore communities to host loss under scenarios of habitat conversion, agricultural intensification, or climate change. Furthermore, the matrix can be integrated with environmental and trait databases to support predictive modeling, risk assessment, and long-term monitoring initiatives. The matrix is provided in a machine-readable CSV format and is accompanied by detailed documentation, facilitating reuse, reproducibility, and interoperability with other biodiversity resources. By making this resource freely available, I aim to foster broad engagement across ecological and conservation communities, enhance comparative studies of plant–herbivore interactions, and provide a lasting foundation for research on the diversity, specialization, and resilience of European herbivore assemblages.