Supplementary material

Supplementary Tables and GlossaryTable S1. Climatic records for NEV and CWQ farmsSeasonal rainfall totals (mm), mean maximum (°C) and minimum (°C) temperatures for Northeastern Victoria (NEV) and Central-Western Queensland (CWQ) farms, reported by calendar quarters for 2013–2023. Study-period means are compared with long-term (1910–2023) averages from SILO climate data (stations: Mansfield Aero, Longreach Aero, Aramac Post Office). Bold values indicate below-average conditions. Table S2. Annual and rolling multi-year emissions intensitiesEmissions intensity (kg CO₂-e/kg product sold) for beef and goat (CWQ) and beef, sheep meat, and greasy wool (NEV), reported annually and as three-year (3YRA) and five-year (5YRA) rolling averages. Variability is summarised with mean, standard deviation, and CV%. Estimates are based on a partial pre-farm to farm-gate LCA aligned with ISO 14040/14067 and IPCC (2019), using customised GHG accounting frameworks (GAF tools). System boundaries include Scope 1, 2, and 3 emissions. Table S3. Feed supplementation program in NEV feedlot system.Annual records (2014–2023) of average feeding days, number of animals finished, total feed consumed (pellets and straw, t), and entry/sale weights for Angus cattle, and feeding duration and feed volumes for Merino lambs. Data were provided by farm operators and validated against records of feed purchases and sales.