The magnitude and spatial scale of the effect of urbanization intensity on the occurrences of forest bird species in Pennsylvania (USA).

Models of occurrence also accounted for other aspects of landscape heterogeneity, local habitat quality, and species detectability. Effect size was calculated as the model-averaged β coefficient of urbanization intensity at its scale of effect using models with ΔAIC ≤ 2. The sample size (N) for each species is the number of point locations surrounded by landscapes with radii equal to the scale of effect. Landscapes that intersected the state border were excluded from analyses, resulting in different numbers of landscapes at each scale.