DataSheet_1_Elephants in the farm – changing temporal and seasonal patterns of human-elephant interactions in a forest-agriculture matrix in the Western Ghats, India.docx

Accelerating levels of human-elephant conflicts (HEC) have become a topic of major concern in conservation efforts of endangered Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) throughout their range. Wayanad plateau (WP) is a key summer habitat of Asian elephants in the Brahmagri-Nilgiri Eastern Ghats elephant landscape (Nilgiris), harbouring the largest breeding population in Asia. With the increase in human population density and consequent forest loss, HEC amplified in frequency and intensity in Wayanad. We assessed the drivers of HEC in a temporal and spatial context by integrating questionnaire surveys, compensation claims for crop loss, and individual identification of crop-raiding elephants. The ordinal regression analysis showed that season and proximity to the forest boundary were the major drivers of conflict. The pattern of conflict is spatially heterogeneous, and there is peak crop depredation during the jackfruit and mango season (MayS-September), followed by paddy season (September-December). The conflict has resulted in the removal of jackfruit and mango trees from farmlands and stopped cultivation of several crops that attract elephants. This has impacted rural food supply, economic well-being, local biodiversity, and human-elephant coexistence. We discuss effective and locally appropriate conflict mitigation and management strategies which can apply in human-dominated landscapes.

人类与大象冲突（HEC）的加速加剧已成为保护濒危亚洲象（Elephas maximus）及其分布范围内所面临的重大关切。瓦亚纳德高原（WP）是亚洲象在布拉马格里-尼尔格里东方山脉大象景观（尼尔格里）中的关键夏季栖息地，拥有亚洲最大的繁殖群体。随着人类人口密度的增加和随之而来的森林损失，瓦亚纳德地区的人类与大象冲突在频率和强度上均有所加剧。通过整合问卷调查、农作物损失赔偿索赔以及农作物侵扰大象的个体识别，我们在时空背景下评估了HEC的驱动因素。序数回归分析表明，季节和与森林边界的邻近程度是冲突的主要驱动因素。冲突的空间分布呈现异质性，在芒果和龙眼季节（5月至9月）期间出现农作物掠夺的高峰，随后是水稻季节（9月至12月）。这种冲突导致芒果和龙眼树木从农田中被移除，并停止了吸引大象的多种作物的种植。这影响了农村食品供应、经济福祉、地方生物多样性和人象共存。我们讨论了适用于人类主导景观的有效且适应当地的冲突缓解和管理策略。