Significant results of all models (model 1 ‘managed-unmanaged-comparison’; model 2 ‘Hainich-Dün’; model 3 ‘age-class comparison’).

Models which showed significant effects are indicated by subscripted numbers. Generalized linear mixed effects models fit by Laplace approximation (lmer) were applied followed by a post-hoc comparison using Tukey contrasts. Please note that model 3 includes only herbivory in the sun-exposed canopy. For details see File S2.