Carbon stock losses, greenhouse gas emissions and social carbon costs arising from conversion of tropical peatlands to water buffalo pastures in the lower Amazon

Tropical peat swamp forests provide many important ecosystem services especially their function as global carbon sinks. These carbon-rich wetlands are widespread in South America, yet few studies have examined carbon stocks or losses due to land use change. In the lower Amazon they are being converted to pastures largely utilized by water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). We quantified carbon stocks in intact peat forests and recently converted pastures (