Mapping the diversity of cetacean and primate cultural heritage

There is burgeoning evidence for animal culture across a range of vertebrate taxa. Social learning, the process that results in non-human culture, can have population-level effects and thus can inform conservation science and policy. It has been argued that non-human culture can provide insights into both how conservation is conducted and what managers should be aiming to conserve (the ‘unit to conserve’). Here we conducted a literature review for studies about culture in cetaceans and primates, and we provide three datasets that underpin an interactive cartographic representation of the diversity of cultural behaviours and ecological contexts in which they arise, including in co-operation or mutualism with human local populations. Our work is intended as a pilot project for a central repository for scientific evidence of the vast diversity of living cultural heritage of non-human societies. Loosely based on the impressive UNESCO resource on human cultures: Dive into Cultural Heritage, this work is intended for a broad audience, from scientists and policymakers to local non-governmental organisations and Indigenous communities. 

In the first instance, a pilot project is proposed to map the vibrant diversity of cetacean and primate cultures across the globe. We provide three datasets: primates, cetaceans, and cetacean migration.

Methods
We collected papers primarily through non-exhaustive literature searches on Scopus and Google Scholar. We searched for keywords “culture, social learning, tradition” alongside common names for the following species; Humpback Whales, Killer Whales, Sperm Whales, Chimpanzees, Orangutans, Gorillas, Capuchins, Japanese Macaques - and the following groups: Dolphins, Great Apes, Monkeys, Whales. Further papers were found in the reference lists for books and reviews, most notably: Whitehead & Rendell (2015), Brakes et al. (2021), and Whiten (2021). Finally, a number of papers were found through connections with colleagues of co-authors.

Papers were added to the dataset if they represented animal culture, here defined as “Information or behaviour – shared within a community – which is acquired from conspecifics through some form of social learning” (after Whitehead & Rendell 2015). A notable exception to this rule is the literature on migratory (Baker et al., 2013; O’Corry-Crowe et al., 2018; Valenzuela et al., 2009), and dietary (Foote et al., 2016), culture in cetaceans, where genetic variation is used as a proxy for cultural drift. During the literature search, emphasis was placed on studies that together showed a range of the following parameters; a) species, b) geographic location, and c) cultural diversity. Other papers were also added to the study showing the emergence of cooperation with humans (Cantor et al., 2023; D’Lima et al., 2014; Niel, 2002). This further highlights the cultural capacity of cetaceans and the interplay of various cultural systems, with implications for coexistence and conservation.