The disruption of seed dispersal networks: Disentangling the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation

Seed dispersal by frugivores is a central process linking plant reproduction, animal foraging, population persistence, and ecosystem resilience. Currently, the spatial template sustaining these interactions is rapidly reconfigured by habitat loss and fragmentation promoted by human activity. While habitat loss consistently reduces the diversity and abundance of frugivores and animal-dispersed plants, the effects of fragmentation per se are still not clear. These changes in landscape structure not only alter the quantity and quality of seed dispersal but also restructure plant–frugivore networks. Here, we explore the potential consequences of habitat loss and fragmentation to plant-frugivore interactions. By integrating natural history, empirical evidence, and metacommunity theory, we also outline a conceptual model to disentangle the contributions of habitat loss and fragmentation per se in shaping frugivory, seed dispersal, and network structure. We argue that advancing this understanding is critical for predicting indirect effects of landscape change and for guiding conservation and restoration strategies that maintain biodiversity and ecological function. We hypothesize that habitat loss will also prevail as the main driver of the disruption of plant-frugivore networks and their functional consequences.