BONE AND CARTILAGE BIOLOGY: REMODELLING PATHWAYS, MOLECULAR PATHOGENESIS OF OSTEOPOROSIS AND OSTEOARTHRITIS, AND EVIDENCE-BASED THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES

Background: Bone and cartilage are specialized connective tissues that provide skeletal support, enable locomotion, and protect vital organs. Their progressive pathological deterioration—osteoporosis (systemic bone loss with fracture risk) affecting 500 million people globally and osteoarthritis (OA, articular cartilage degradation) affecting 595 million—constitutes the most prevalent musculoskeletal disease burden worldwide. Both conditions share common molecular drivers including RANK/RANKL/OPG axis dysregulation, Wnt/β-catenin pathway suppression, and pro-inflammatory cytokine-mediated extracellular matrix destruction.