Coefficients and standard errors of a linear mixed effects model predicting the area (ha) of foraging crater in individual meadows in winter.

Independent variables included snow water equivalent, missed opportunity costs of foraging in that meadow and not elsewhere in the landscape (), index of wolf presence (absence  = 0, presence  = 1) and log-transformed meadow area. A total of 144 foraging craters were recorded in 26 meadows in Prince Albert National Park (Saskatchewan, Canada) during the winters of 1997, 1998 and 2011. Pseudo R2 = 0.31.