Data from: Evidence for nonconsumptive effects from a large predator in an ungulate prey?

Pedators can indirectly affect prey survival and reproduction by evoking costly anti-predator responses. Such non-consumptive effects may be as strong or stronger than consumptive predator effects. However, evidence for this in large terrestrial vertebrate systems is equivocal and few studies quantify the actual fitness costs of non-consumptive effects. Here we investigated whether non-consumptive effects elicited by Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), a large terrestrial predator, reduced survival in an ungulate prey, the European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). To reveal the behavioral processes underlying non-consumptive effects, we distinguished between proactive risk avoidance of areas with high lynx encounter probability, and reactive risk avoidance in response to actual lynx encounters and analyzed these responses using step selection functions. We also quantified the consequences of these behaviors for deer survival. Deer reacted differently at day and at night, but avoided high-risk areas proactively during the day and at night in the summer. During a predator encounter, deer increased avoidance of high-risk areas at night but not during the day. Thus, roe deer exhibited a behavioral response race that involved temporally and spatially varying tradeoffs with environmental constraints. We found evidence that non-consumptive effects of lynx predation risk reduced deer survival and that survival was more sensitive to variation in non-consumptive effects of lynx than to variation in human proximity. Our findings highlight that non-consumptive effects may depend on the spatiotemporal distribution of risks and the environmental context, and we discuss how human factors contribute to predator-prey dynamics in human dominated landscapes.捕食者可通过触发代价高昂的反捕食行为响应，间接影响猎物的存活与繁殖成功率。这类无捕食消耗效应（non-consumptive effects）的强度可能与捕食消耗效应相当，甚至更强。然而，在大型陆生脊椎动物研究系统中，支持这一观点的证据仍不明确，且鲜有研究量化无捕食消耗效应实际带来的适合度代价。本研究旨在探究大型陆生捕食者欧亚猞猁（Eurasian lynx, *Lynx lynx*）所引发的无捕食消耗效应，是否会降低有蹄类猎物欧洲狍（European roe deer, *Capreolus capreolus*）的存活率。为揭示无捕食消耗效应背后的行为机制，我们将反捕食行为区分为两类：一是主动规避猞猁偶遇概率较高的区域，二是在实际遭遇猞猁时做出的响应式风险规避行为，并通过步选择函数（step selection functions）对两类行为响应进行分析。同时，我们还量化了上述行为对狍存活率的影响。狍的昼夜间行为响应存在显著差异：夏季无论昼夜，它们均会主动规避高风险区域。而在实际遭遇捕食者时，狍仅在夜间会进一步强化对高风险区域的规避行为，日间则无此变化。由此可见，欧洲狍呈现出一种随时间与空间动态调整的行为响应权衡模式，该模式需平衡各类环境约束条件。本研究证实，猞猁捕食风险引发的无捕食消耗效应会降低狍的存活率，且狍的存活率对猞猁无捕食消耗效应的变化，相较于对人类活动距离的变化更为敏感。本研究结果表明，无捕食消耗效应可能取决于风险的时空分布与环境背景；最后我们还讨论了人类活动因素如何在人类主导景观中调控捕食者-猎物动态关系。