Supplementary file 1_Perceived barriers and learning anxiety in online education among domestic and international students.docx

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, university students in China experienced a rapid shift to online education beginning in late 2019. However, online learning experiences differed substantially between domestic students, who underwent hybrid instruction with repeated transitions between online and in-person classes, and international students, many of whom experienced fully online instruction for more than 2 years. Grounded in Learning Anxiety Theory and the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, this study developed an Online Learning Anxiety State Scale (Cronbach’s α = 0.780) and an Online Education Obstacle scale (Cronbach’s α = 0.779), which demonstrated acceptable overall reliability and validity. Using these instruments, the study examined perceived barriers to online learning-particularly online teaching skills and technological factors-and their relationships with online learning anxiety among domestic (N = 133) and international (N = 86) undergraduate students enrolled in Chinese universities. Results identified three primary dimensions-teachers’ teaching skills, internet/equipment conditions, and environmental factors-as significant contributors to heightened online learning anxiety. These factors were significantly associated with students’ anxiety levels in online learning contexts. Furthermore, notable group differences emerged: compared with domestic students, international students perceived environmental factors as more salient sources of anxiety than internet or equipment-related barriers. This study fills a key gap by examining how multiple online learning obstacles relate to anxiety, comparing domestic and international students. Integrating Equity Theory and Expectancy-Value Theory, it reconceptualizes online learning anxiety as a multifaceted psychological response shaped by fairness perceptions and unmet expectations. Findings advance theory, guide post-pandemic higher education toward modality equity, and inform equitable, psychologically sustainable distance and blended learning design.