Incorporation Of Extended And Processed Telomere End Into Higher Order T-Loop And Associated Protein Structure
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In addition to telomerase-mediated elongation and C-strand synthesis, other DNA processing steps are likely involved in telomere maintenance. In humans, nucleolytic activity is proposed to be involved in generating the G-rich 3' single strand overhang. In addition, differences in the structure of the overhang at telomeres that have undergone leading vs. lagging strand replication suggest that DNA processing may be different at these telomeres (Chai et al. 2006).<br><br>Electron microscopy studies of purified human telomeric DNA have provided evidence for telomeric loops, or t-loops (Griffith et al. 1999). t-loops are proposed to result from invasion of the 3' G-rich single strand overhang into the double stranded portion of the telomeric TTAGGG repeat tract. The strand displaced by invasion forms a structure called a D loop. The function of the t-loop is presumed to be the protection of the 3' telomeric end. In vitro, the double strand telomeric DNA binding protein TRF2 can increase the frequency of t-loop formation. The prevalence of the t-loops in vivo is not known.<br><br>Many proteins associate with telomeric DNA. One complex that binds telomeres is called shelterin. Shelterin is a six-protein complex composed of TRF1 and TRF2, which can bind double-stranded telomeric DNA, POT1, which can bind single-stranded telomeric DNA, and three other factors, RAP1, TIN2, and TPP1 (reviewed in de Lange 2006 "Telomeres"). Human telomeric DNA is also bound by nucleosomes (Makarov et al. 1993; Nikitina and Woodcock 2004). A number of other proteins, including some that play roles in the DNA damage response, can be found at telomeres (Zhu et al. 2000; Verdun et al. 2005).<br><br>Studies in yeast and humans indicate that the association of many proteins with telomeres is regulated through the cell cycle (Smith et al. 1993; Zhu et al. 2000; Taggart et al. 2002; Fisher et al. 2004; Takata et al. 2004; Takata et al. 2005; Verdun et al. 2005). For instance, TRF1, MRE11, POT1, ATM, and NBS1 display cell cycle regulated chromatin immunoprecipitation of telomeric DNA (Zhu et al. 2000; Verdun et al. 2005), and cytologically observable hTERT and hTERC localize to a subset of telomeres only in S-phase (Jady et al. 2006; Tomlinson et al. 2006). These data indicate that telomeres are dynamically remodeled through the cell cycle.
除端粒酶介导的延长和C链合成之外,其他DNA加工步骤可能参与端粒的维护。在人类中,核苷酸活性被认为参与了生成富含G的3'单链突出部分。此外,经过领头链与滞后链复制后端粒突出部分结构差异的研究表明,在这些端粒中DNA加工可能存在差异(Chai等人,2006年)。电子显微镜对人端粒DNA的研究提供了端粒环或t环(Griffith等人,1999年)的证据。t环被认为是由3'富含G的单链突出部分侵入端粒TTAGGG重复序列的双链部分而形成的。被侵入所置换的链形成称为D环的结构。t环的功能推测为保护3'端粒末端。在体外,双链端粒DNA结合蛋白TRF2可以增加t环形成的频率。体内t环的普遍性尚不清楚。<br><br>许多蛋白质与端粒DNA相关联。一种结合端粒的复合物称为shelterin。shelterin是由TRF1和TRF2组成的六蛋白复合物,可以结合双链端粒DNA,POT1可以结合单链端粒DNA,以及另外三种因子RAP1、TIN2和TPP1(参见de Lange 2006年《端粒》一书的综述)。人的端粒DNA还与核小体相结合(Makarov等人,1993年;Nikitina和Woodcock,2004年)。在端粒中还可以发现许多其他蛋白质,包括一些在DNA损伤反应中发挥作用的蛋白质(Zhu等人,2000年;Verdun等人,2005年)。<br><br>酵母和人类的研究表明,许多蛋白质与端粒的结合是通过细胞周期进行调控的(Smith等人,1993年;Zhu等人,2000年;Taggart等人,2002年;Fisher等人,2004年;Takata等人,2004年;Takata等人,2005年;Verdun等人,2005年)。例如,TRF1、MRE11、POT1、ATM和NBS1在端粒DNA上的染色质免疫沉淀表现出细胞周期调控(Zhu等人,2000年;Verdun等人,2005年),而细胞学上可观察到的hTERT和hTERC仅在S期定位于端粒的子集(Jady等人,2006年;Tomlinson等人,2006年)。这些数据表明,端粒通过细胞周期进行动态重塑。
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