Field Survey Data and R script

Vegetation data were collected from 24 plots within Marakele National Park, equally representing encroached (woody-dominated) and non-encroached (open savanna) areas. Within each 25 × 25 m plot, species composition, abundance, canopy cover, height, and stem diameter of woody and shrub species were recorded following SEOSAW and Global Grassy Group protocols. Woody species were also classified by growth form and canopy classes to capture structural variation. GPS coordinates were recorded for all plots to allow spatial analysis. Historical vegetation data from 2013–2017 were incorporated to provide temporal context for assessing changes in species composition, abundance, and encroachment patterns.