Dynamic energy landscapes of predators and the implications for modifying prey risk

Landscapes of fear describe a spatial representation of an animal's
perceived risk of predation and the associated foraging costs, while
energy landscapes describe the spatial representation of their energetic
cost of moving and foraging. Fear landscapes are often dynamic and change
based on predator presence and behavior, and variation in abiotic
conditions that modify risk. Energy landscapes are also dynamic and can
change across diel, seasonal, and climatic timescales based on variability
in temperature, snowfall, wind/current speeds etc. Recently, it was
suggested that fear and energy landscapes should be integrated. In this
paradigm, the interaction between the landscapes relates to prey being
forced into areas of the energy landscape they would avoid if risk were
not a factor. However, dynamic energy landscapes experienced by predators
must also be considered since they can affect their ability to forage,
irrespective of variation in prey behavior. We propose an additional
component to the fear and dynamic energy landscape paradigm that
integrates landscapes of both prey and predators, where predator foraging
behavior is modulated by changes in their energyscape. Specifically, we
integrate the predators' energy landscape into foraging theory that
predicts prey patch-leaving decisions under the threat of predation. We
predict that as a predator's energetic cost of foraging increases in
a habitat, then the prey's foraging costs of predation and patch
quitting harvest rate will decrease. Prey may also decrease their
vigilance in response to increased energetic foraging cost for predators,
which will lower prey-giving-up densities. We then provide examples in
terrestrial, aerial and marine ecosystems where we might expect to see
these effects. These include birds, sharks which use updrafts that vary
based on wind and current speeds, tidal state, or temperature and
terrestrial predators (e.g. wolves) whose landscapes vary seasonally with
snow depth or ice cover which may influence their foraging success and
even diet selection. A predator perspective is critical to considering the
combination of these landscapes and their ecological consequences. Dynamic
predator energy landscapes could add a spatiotemporal component to risk
effects which may cascade through food webs.