Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA)

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) is the predominant form of pancreatic cancer. It is particularly heterogeneous. Normal duct epithelium progresses to infiltrating cancer through a series of histologically defined precursors. The overexpression of HER-2/neu and activating point mutations in the KRAS gene occur early, inactivation of the CKN2A gene (p16INK and p19ARF) at an intermediate stage, and the inactivation of p53, SMAD4, and BRCA2 occur relatively late. Also RAF mutations are found, but BRAF and KRAS gene mutations are mutually exclusive. Other mutated oncogenes are AKT1 or AKT2. Other tumor suppressors: CDKN2B and FHIT.