Validating a questionnaire for tapping into autonomy in learning L2 grammar

<p><span style="background-color:rgb( 251 , 251 , 251 );color:rgba( 0 , 0 , 0 , 0.87 );font-family:&#39;raleway&#39; , sans-serif;font-size:14px">Project &#34;Strategie uczenia się gramatyki, wybrane różnice indywidualne a rozwój wiedzy językowej wśród osób uczących się języka obcego na poziomie zaawansowanym&#34;, number 2020/39/B/HS2/00501, National Science Centre, Poland.</span><span style="background-color:rgb( 251 , 251 , 251 );color:rgba( 0 , 0 , 0 , 0.87 );font-family:&#39;raleway&#39; , sans-serif;font-size:14px"> </span></p><p><span style="font-size:12.04px">Autonomy in learning L2 grammar has rarely been investigated using validated, domain-specific instruments. This study developed and validated the Grammar Learning Autonomy Scale (GLAS) on the basis of data collected from 1,034 university English majors in Poland and Turkey. The validation process involved exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) together with exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) and its bifactor extension (Bi-ESEM), estimated with a robust procedure (WLSMV estimator). Five dimensions were identified: self-directed, teacher-independent, self-regulated, engaged, and socio-emotional grammar learning. The bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling (Bi-ESEM) solution offered the most adequate representation of the data, supporting both a reliable general autonomy factor and well-defined specific dimensions. Multi-group tests confirmed full measurement invariance across country and gender (female/male). Structural modeling demonstrated that the general autonomy factor was positively related to domain-specific grit, motivated behavior, self-efficacy, and self-regulation. The specific dimensions also contributed to these outcomes, most strongly for self-regulated and engaged learning and to a lesser extent for self-directed, teacher-independent, and socio-emotional learning. The GLAS provides a valid and reliable tool for examining autonomy in learning L2 grammar and assessing pedagogical practices that aim to strengthen learner self-direction in this area.</span></p>