Livestock–Crop–Mushroom (LCM) Circular System: An Eco-Friendly Approach for Enhancing Plant Performance and Mitigating Microbiological Risks

Mushroom production using agroforestry biowaste is a great green cycling agriculture alternative. Therefore, the current study explored the Livestock–Crop–Mushroom (LCM) circular production model, starting with co-composting of straw and cow manure as a’St’ biofertilizer further used for mushroom cultivation that ultimately produced a’StM’ biofertilizer. The two biofertilizers were tested for their impacts on plant growth and potential microbial risks. The results show significant growth of oats stimulated by biofertiliser use. Both’St’ and’StM’ increased plant biomass, while with the latter, the crude protein content (+5.1%) and root biomass were also higher. Reduced abundances of resistome genes (30%) and pathogens (25%) were observed during the oat growth. Further, metagenomics analysis also indicated a reduction in antibiotic-resistance genes by −20% in soils with oats treated by’St’ and −46% in’StM’ biofertilizer treatment. The’StM’ had a three-fold stronger inhibitory effect on oat rhizosphere soil pathogens than’St’. Moreover, compared to’St’,’StM’ suppressed pathogens in seeds and stems, with specific beneficial biomarker microbes in different plant parts. Overall, the antibiotic resistance gene related to oxytetracycline decreased more than three-fold in the LCM system. This study demonstrates the substantial potential and scalability of the LCM circular system within the agricultural domain.