Geology and geomorphology--Offshore of Aptos Map Area, California

This part of DS 781 presents data for the geologic and geomorphic map of the Offshore Aptos map area, California. The vector data file is included in "Geology_OffshoreAptos.zip," which is accessible from http://dx.doi.org/10.5066/F7K35RQB. Most of the offshore occupies very gently dipping (about 0.1° to 0.4°) continental shelf, extending from the nearshore to water depths of about 70 m. In the southwestern part of the map, the shelf is incised by the north-trending head of Soquel Canyon, which has a maximum depth of 260 m on the south edge of the map. The shelf is underlain by late Neogene bedrock and a variably thick (as much as 32 m) late Quaternary sediment cover. Sea level has risen 120 to 130 m over about the last 21,000 years (for example, Stanford and others, 2011), leading to broadening of the continental shelf, progressive eastward migration of the shoreline and wave-cut platform, and transgressive erosion and deposition. Sea-level rise was apparently not steady during this period, leading to development of shoreline angles and adjacent submerged wave-cut platforms and risers (Kern, 1977). These features commonly are commonly removed by erosion or buried by shelf sediment, however their original morphology is at least partly preserved along the rim of upper Soquel Canyon. Geologic map units include three wave-cut platforms (units Qwp1, Qwp2, Qwp3) and risers (units Qwpr1, Qwpr2, Qwpr3), separated by shoreline angles at depths of approximately 96 to 100 m, 108 m, and 120 to 125 m. The deepest paleoshoreline (about 120 m deep) approximately corresponds to sea level during the final stages of the last sea-level lowstand (Stanford and others, 2011). Submergence during sea-level rise also cut off the direct connection between Soquel Canyon and coastal watersheds, rendering the submarine canyon relatively inactive. Although slightly sheltered in Monterey Bay, the Offshore of Aptos map area is now subjected to significant wave energy and strong currents. Shelf morphology and geology are also affected by local faulting, folding, and uplift. The shelf in the Offshore of Aptos map area is cut by a diffuse zone of northwest-striking, steeply dipping to vertical faults mapped with high-resolution, seismic-reflection profiles. Faults are mapped on the basis of abrupt truncation or warping of reflections and (or) juxtaposition of reflection panels with different seismic parameters. Seismic profiles traversing this diffuse zone cross as many as 13 faults over a distance of 8 km. Mapped fault lengths in this diffuse zone are typically 2 to 7 km, and the strike of these offshore faults rotates from about 325° to 350° from southwest to northeast. Faults in this diffuse zone cut through Neogene bedrock and locally appear to disrupt overlying latest Quaternary sediments, and the presence of warped reflections along some fault strands suggests there may be both vertical and strike-slip offsets. This broad, distributed zone of deformation resembles the northwest-trending Monterey Bay Fault Zone (Greene, 1977, 1990), which occurs about 10 km farther west in outer Monterey Bay and similarly lacks a lengthy continuous "master fault." Deformation in both the Monterey Bay Fault zone and the diffuse zone of faults in the Offshore of Aptos map area is attributable to its location in the 40-km-wide, northward-narrowing structural zone between two major, right-lateral, strike-slip faults, the San Andreas Fault to the east and the offshore San Gregorio Fault to the west (McCulloch, 1987; Brabb, 1997; Wagner and others, 2002; Dickinson and others, 2005). Emergent late Pleistocene marine terraces on the south flank of the Santa Cruz Mountains in and north of northeastern Monterey Bay are as high as 125 m. Anderson and Menking (1994) report a 50- to 60-m elevation for the shoreline angle tied to the lowest emergent terrace (assigned to oxygen isotope stage 5c or 5e) in the Aptos vicinity, suggesting an uplift rate of about 0.4 to 0.6 mm/yr. Anderson (1990) and Anderson and Menking (1994) attributed this uplift to advection of crust around a bend in the San Andreas Fault, which lies 13 km northeast of the Aptos shoreline. The uplifted region in this tectonic model would include the nearshore and shelf of northeastern Monterey Bay, but there are considerable shore-normal uplift gradients and offshore uplift rates are not constrained. From La Selva Beach west to the western edge of the map area, the upper Miocene and Pliocene Purisima Formation (unit Tp; Powell and others, 2007) forms discontinuous outcrops that extend from coastal bluffs into the offshore to depths as great as 25 m. The seafloor outcrops are most prominent offshore of Soquel Point and have relatively low relief, probably in large part due to low structural dips. The Purisima Formation also forms outcrops in the steep walls of the head of Soquel Canyon. Other "hard bottom" in the map area is mapped at the location of a wastewater outfall pipe offshore of the mouth of the Pajaro River (artificial fill; unit af). Modern nearshore and inner- to mid-shelf sediments are mostly sand (unit Qms) and a mix of sand and gravel (units Qmsc and Qmsd). There is an extensive area in northeastern Monterey Bay where unit Tp bedrock is overlain a very thin cover of Qms; such areas are mapped and labeled as composite units (Qms/Tp) and shown with a stippled pattern on the map. Storlazzi and others (2011) showed that active sediment transport in the nearshore of northern Monterey Bay can lead to significant burial and exhumation of offshore bedrock reefs, and it is likely that the sediment cover in the mapped composite areas is ephemeral and transient. The more coarse-grained sands and gravels (units Qmsc and Qmsd) are primarily recognized on the basis of bathymetry and high backscatter. Unit Qmsc occurs only adjacent to bedrock at Soquel Point in water depths less than 20 m. Unit Qmsd forms erosional lags in scoured depressions at water depths ranging from about 10 to 25 m. The Qmsd depressions have irregular to lenticular outlines; are a few tens of centimeters deep; range in size from a few 10's to as much as about 54,000 m2; and are either bounded by relatively sharp and less commonly diffuse contacts with unit Qms sands, or by abrupt contacts with seafloor bedrock outcrops. Qmsd depressions are most abundant in a northeast-trending zone between Seacliff State Beach and La Selva Beach, where they form distinct, narrow (< 50 m) linear, bands that extend about 4 km offshore. Scour depressions similar to those mapped adjacent to bedrock near Soquel Point are common along this stretch of the California coast (see, for example, Hallenbeck and others, 2012; Davis and others, 2013). Such features have been referred to as "rippled-scour depressions" (see, for example, Cacchione and others, 1984) or "sorted bedforms" (see, for example, Goff and others, 2005; Trembanis and Hume, 2011). They form where surficial offshore sandy sediment is relatively thin (thus unable to fill the depressions) due to both low sediment supply and to erosion and transport of sediment during large ocean swells. The elongate, linear, shore-normal bands of scour depressions between Aptos and La Selva Beach are morphologically anomalous; this mode of occurrence has not been recognized elsewhere along the California coast. Although the general areas in which both unit Qmsd scour depressions and surrounding Qms sand sheets occur are not likely to change substantially, the boundaries of the unit(s) are likely ephemeral, changing seasonally and during significant storm events. An offshore transition from unit Qms to the more fine-grained marine sediments of unit Qmsf occurs at water depths of 25 to 30 m. Unit Qmsf is commonly extensively bioturbated and consists primarily of mud and muddy sand. Edwards (2002) and Grossman and others (2006) suggested these fine-grained sediments form an extensive "mid-shelf mud belt" that was primarily sourced by the San Lorenzo River, Pajaro River, and smaller coastal watersheds. A 4.3 km2 zone of hummocky seafloor (Qmsh) surrounded by fine-grained Qmsf occurs in the southeastern part of the map area at 30 to 35 m water depth, about 3 to 4 km north of the head of Soquel Canyon. Bathymetric contours reveal that the hummocky zone has an embayed up-slope margin, and relief on hummocks within the zone is as much as 100 cm over 100 m. The hummocky zone probably formed by liquefaction, and associated induced ground failure forced by strong ground motions from earthquakes. The embayed upper margin of the zone also indicates some slumping, surprising given the extremely gentle dip of the shelf (about 0.2°) at this location. Earthquake sources for strong ground motions could include the distributed fault zone in northeastern Monterey Bay (several mapped faults cut the hummocky area) or the nearby San Andreas Fault (20 km to the northeast) or San Gregorio Fault (19 km to the southwest). Recent large earthquakes on the San Andreas Fault include the M 6.9 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake and the M 7.8 1906 Great California earthquake (Northern California Earthquake Data Center, 2014). Soquel Canyon is a tributary to the much larger Monterey Canyon system (Greene and others, 2002). The canyon axis plunges south about 4°; side-canyon walls generally dip about 5° but are locally as steep as 20° to 25°. Non-bedrock geologic units in Soquel Canyon are largely defined and delineated on the basis of geomorphology. Unit Qcw represents mud and sand draped over the upper submarine canyon wall. Unit Qcfa represents the mainly mud fill of the inactive axial canyon channel. References Cited Anderson, R.S., 1990, Evolution of the northern Santa Cruz Mountains by advection of crust past a San Andreas Fault bend: Science, v. 249, p. 397-401. Anderson, R.S., and Menking, K.M., 1994, The Quaternary marine terraces of Santa Cruz, California-Evidence for coseismic uplift on two faults: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 106, p. 649-664. Brabb, E.E., 1997, Geologic Map of Santa Cruz County, California: A digital database, US Geological Survey Open-File Report 97-489, 1:62,500. Davis, A.C.D., Kvitek, R.G., Mueller, C.B.A., Young, M.A., Storlazzi, C.D., and Phillips, E.L., 2013, Distribution and abundance of rippled scour depressions along the California coast: Continental Shelf Research, v. 69, p. 88-100. Dickinson, W.R., Ducea, M., Rosenberg, L.I., Greene, H.G., Graham, S.A., Clark, J.C., Weber, G.E., Kidder, S., Ernst, W.G., and Brabb, E.E., 2005, Net dextral slip, Neogene San Gregorio-Hosgri Fault Zone, coastal California: Geologic evidence and tectonic implications: Geological Society of America Special Paper 391, 43 p. Edwards, B.D., 2002, Variations in sediment texture on the northern Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary continental shelf: Marine Geology, v. 181, p. 83-100. Goff, J.A., Mayer, L.A., Traykovski, P., Buynevich, I., Wilkens, R., Raymond, R., Glang, G., Evans, R.L., Olson, H., and Jenkins, C., 2005, Detailed investigations of sorted bedforms or "rippled scour depressions", within the Martha’s Vineyard Coastal Observatory, Massachusetts: Continental Shelf Research, v. 25, p. 461-484. Greene, H.G., 1977, Geology of the Monterey Bay region: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 77-718, 347 p. Greene, H.G., 1990, Regional tectonics and structural evolution of the Monterey Bay region, central California, in Garrison, R.E., Greene, H.G., Hicks, K.R., Weber, G.E., and Wright, T.L., eds., Geology and tectonics of the central California coastal region, San Francisco to Monterey, Pacific Section American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Guidebook GB-67, p. 31-56. Greene, H.G., Maher, N.M., and Paull, C.K., 2002, Physiography of the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary and implications about continental margin development: Marine Geology, v. 181, p. 55-82. Grossman, E.E., Eittreim, S.L., Field, M.E., and Wong, F.L., 2006, Shallow stratigraphy and sedimentation history during high-frequency sea-level changes on the central California shelf: Continental Shelf Research, v. 26, p1217-1239. Hallenbeck, T.R., Kvitek, R.G., and Lindholm, J., 2012, Rippled scour depressions add ecologically significant heterogeneity to soft-bottom habitats on the continental shelf: Marine Ecology Progress Series, v. 468, p. 119-133. Kern, J.P., 1977, Origin and history of upper Pleistocene marine terraces, San Diego, California: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 88, p. 1,553-1,566. McCulloch, D.S., 1987, Regional geology and hydrocarbon potential of offshore central California, in Scholl, D.W., Grantz, A., and Vedder, J.G., eds., Geology and Resource Potential of the Continental Margin of Western North America and Adjacent Oceans -- Beaufort Sea to Baja California: Houston, Texas, Circum-Pacific Council for Energy and Mineral Resources, Earth Science Series, v. 6., p. 353-401. Northern California Earthquake Data Center, 2014, Northern California earthquake catalog: Northern California Earthquake Data Center database, accessed April 5, 2014, at http://www.ncedc.org/ncsn/. Powell, Charles L., II, Barron, John A., Sarna-Wojcicki, Andrei M., Clark, Joseph C., Perry, Frank A., Brabb, Earl E., and Fleck, Robert J., 2007, Age, stratigraphy, and correlations of the late Neogene Purisima Formation, central California Coast Ranges: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1740, 32 p., available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/2007/1740/. Stanford, J.D., Hemingway, R., Rohling, E.J., Challenor, P.G., Medina-Elizalde, M., and Lester, A.J., 2011, Sea-level probability for the last deglaciation, statistical analysis of far-field records: Global and Planetary Change, v. 79, p. 193-203. Storlazzi, C.D., Fregoso, T.A., Golden, N.E., and Finlayson, D.P., 2011, Sediment dynamics and the burial and exhumation of bedrock reefs along an emergent coastline as elucidated by repetitive sonar surveys-northern Monterey Bay, CA: Marine Geology, v. 289, p. 46-59. Trembanis, A.C., and Hume, T.M., 2011, Sorted bedforms on the inner shelf off northeastern New Zealand-Spatiotemporal relationships and potential paleo-environmental implications: Geo-Marine Letters, v. 31, p. 203-214. Wagner, D.L., Greene, H.G., Saucedo, G.J., and Pridmore, C.L., 2002, Geologic Map of the Monterey 30' x 60' quadrangle and adjacent areas, California: California Geological Survey Regional Geologic Map Series, scale 1:100,000.本数据集DS 781的本部分提供了加利福尼亚州近海阿普托斯（Offshore Aptos）制图区域的地质与地貌图数据。矢量数据文件收录于"Geology_OffshoreAptos.zip"压缩包中，可通过链接http://dx.doi.org/10.5066/F7K35RQB获取。 该近海区域主体为倾角极缓（约0.1°~0.4°）的大陆架（continental shelf），范围从近岸延伸至约70米水深区域。制图区西南部的大陆架被北向延伸的索克尔峡谷（Soquel Canyon）头部切割，该峡谷头部在制图区南缘的最大水深达260米。大陆架基底为晚新近纪基岩，其上覆盖厚度不均（最大可达32米）的晚第四纪沉积盖层。在过去约21000年中，海平面上升了120~130米（Stanford等，2011），导致大陆架范围扩大、海岸线与浪蚀平台（wave-cut platform）逐步向东迁移，同时发生海侵侵蚀与沉积作用。此期间海平面上升并非匀速，由此形成了海岸线角度带及邻近的淹没型浪蚀平台与陡坎（riser）（Kern，1977）。这类地貌通常会被侵蚀作用破坏或被大陆架沉积物掩埋，但在上索克尔峡谷的边缘地带，其原始形貌至少得到了部分保留。地质图制图单元包含3处浪蚀平台（单元Qwp1、Qwp2、Qwp3）与陡坎（单元Qwpr1、Qwpr2、Qwpr3），三者以海岸线角度带为界，对应的水深分别约为96~100米、108米以及120~125米。最深的古海岸线（水深约120米）大致对应末次海平面低水位期（sea-level lowstand）最终阶段的海平面（Stanford等，2011）。海平面上升过程中的淹没作用还切断了索克尔峡谷与沿海流域的直接连通，使得该海底峡谷（submarine canyon）相对不活跃。尽管阿普托斯近海制图区域在蒙特雷湾内略有遮蔽，但目前仍承受着显著的波浪能量与强劲的海流作用。 大陆架形貌与地质特征同时受局部断裂作用、褶皱作用与抬升作用影响。阿普托斯近海制图区的大陆架被一条由北西向、陡倾至直立断层组成的弥散性断裂带切割，该断裂带通过高分辨率地震反射剖面（seismic-reflection profiles）进行填图。断层的识别依据为反射界面的突然截断或褶皱变形，以及（或）具有不同地震参数的反射段的并置。穿过该弥散带的地震剖面在8公里范围内可识别出多达13条断层。该弥散带内已填图的断层长度通常为2~7公里，且这些近海断层的走向从西南到东北方向，由约325°旋转至350°。该弥散带内的断层切穿新近纪基岩，局部可见对上覆晚第四纪沉积物的扰动；部分断层段上存在褶皱反射界面，表明其可能兼具垂直位移与走滑位移（strike-slip faults）。这一广泛分布的变形带与北西向的蒙特雷湾断裂带（Monterey Bay Fault Zone）特征相似（Greene，1977、1990），后者位于蒙特雷湾外海以西约10公里处，同样缺乏一条长而连续的“主控断层”。阿普托斯近海制图区的断裂弥散带与蒙特雷湾断裂带的变形作用，均源于其所处的构造位置：该区域位于两条大型右旋走滑断层之间的40公里宽、向北收窄的构造带内，东侧为圣安德烈亚斯断层（San Andreas Fault），西侧为近海圣格雷戈里奥断层（San Gregorio Fault）（McCulloch，1987；Brabb，1997；Wagner等，2002；Dickinson等，2005）。 蒙特雷湾东北部及以北区域圣克鲁斯山脉南翼的出露晚更新世海蚀阶地（marine terraces）最高可达125米。Anderson与Menking（1994）报道，阿普托斯附近最低的出露阶地（对应氧同位素阶段（oxygen isotope stage）5c或5e期）所绑定的海岸线角度带海拔为50~60米，据此推算抬升速率约为0.4~0.6毫米/年。Anderson（1990）以及Anderson与Menking（1994）将该抬升作用归因于圣安德烈亚斯断层弯曲处的地壳平流作用，该断层位于阿普托斯海岸线东北方向13公里处。该构造模型中的抬升区域应包含蒙特雷湾东北部的近岸与大陆架区域，但沿岸垂直方向的抬升梯度较大，且近海的抬升速率尚未得到约束。 从拉萨尔瓦海滩（La Selva Beach）向西至制图区西缘，中新统与上新统的普里西马组（Purisima Formation，单元Tp；Powell等，2007）形成不连续露头，从海岸崖壁延伸至近海区域，最大水深可达25米。海底露头在索克尔角（Soquel Point）近海最为显著，且地形起伏相对较低，这大概率主要源于较低的构造倾角。普里西马组同样在索克尔峡谷头部的陡峭崖壁上形成露头。制图区内的其他“硬质底质”分布在帕哈罗河（Pajaro River）河口近海的排污管道位置（人工堆积物，单元af）。 现代近岸及内-中陆架沉积物以砂质为主（单元Qms），以及砂与砾石的混合沉积物（单元Qmsc与Qmsd）。蒙特雷湾东北部存在大片区域，其中单元Tp基岩上覆盖着极薄的Qms沉积物；这类区域被填绘为复合单元（Qms/Tp），并在图中以斑点图案表示。Storlazzi等（2011）指出，蒙特雷湾北部近岸的活跃沉积物搬运作用可导致近海基岩礁体被显著掩埋或出露，而填绘的复合区域内的沉积盖层大概率是短暂易变的。 粒度更粗的砂与砾石沉积物（单元Qmsc与Qmsd）主要通过水深测量（bathymetry）与高反向散射（backscatter）特征识别。单元Qmsc仅分布于索克尔角附近水深小于20米的基岩区域。单元Qmsd形成于水深约10~25米的冲刷洼地中，为侵蚀残留沉积物。Qmsd洼地的外形从不规则状到透镜状不等，深度约为数十厘米，面积从几十平方米到最大约54000平方米不等；其边界要么与Qms砂质沉积物形成相对清晰（少数情况为弥散）的接触带，要么与海底基岩露头形成突变接触。Qmsd洼地在西克利夫州立海滩（Seacliff State Beach）与拉萨尔瓦海滩之间的北东向带内最为发育，形成宽度小于50米的清晰线性条带，向海延伸约4公里。 与索克尔角附近基岩旁的冲刷洼地类似的地貌，在加利福尼亚州沿岸的该段区域十分常见（例如Hallenbeck等，2012；Davis等，2013）。这类地貌被称为“波纹冲刷洼地”（例如Cacchione等，1984）或“分选床形”（例如Goff等，2005；Trembanis与Hume，2011）。它们形成于近海表层砂质沉积物相对较薄的区域——由于沉积物供给不足，且在大型海洋涌浪期间发生侵蚀与搬运作用，无法填充洼地。阿普托斯与拉萨尔瓦海滩之间的长条状、垂直海岸线分布的冲刷洼地条带在形貌上较为异常，这种产出模式在加利福尼亚州沿岸其他区域尚未被发现。尽管Qmsd冲刷洼地与周边Qms砂质席状沉积物所在的大致区域不会发生显著变化，但该单元的边界大概率是短暂易变的，会随季节变化与重大风暴事件发生改变。 在水深25~30米的近海区域，沉积物从单元Qms向粒度更细的Qmsf海相沉积物过渡。单元Qmsf通常被强烈生物扰动（bioturbated），主要由泥质与泥质砂组成。Edwards（2002）与Grossman等（2006）指出，这类细粒沉积物形成了广泛分布的“中陆架泥质带”，其物源主要为圣洛伦索河、帕哈罗河与小型沿海流域。 在制图区东南部、索克尔峡谷头部以北约3~4公里、水深30~35米的区域，存在一片面积4.3平方公里的丘状海底（Qmsh），周边被细粒Qmsf沉积物环绕。水深等值线（bathymetric contours）显示，该丘状带的上坡边缘呈海湾状，带内丘体的地形起伏可达每100米高差100厘米。该丘状带大概率由液化作用（liquefaction）形成，伴随地震强地面运动引发的诱发地面破坏（ground failure）。该带的海湾状上缘还显示存在一定的滑塌（slumping）现象，考虑到该区域大陆架倾角仅约0.2°，这一现象较为出人意料。引发强地面运动的地震震源可能包括蒙特雷湾东北部的弥散断裂带（多条已填绘的断层穿过该丘状区域）、附近的圣安德烈亚斯断层（东北方向20公里处）或圣格雷戈里奥断层（西南方向19公里处）。圣安德烈亚斯断层近年的大型地震包括1989年Mw6.9的洛马普列塔地震与1906年Mw7.8的加州大地震（北加州地震数据中心，2014）。 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