Results of male-male competition experiments.

a- Paired t-test results for mean phenotype of winners versus losers. Winner is defined as the male who spent the most cumulative time in contact with the female.b- Wilcoxon signed rank tests for smaller versus larger male's time spent with female. Smaller and larger were defined independently for each pair of competing males. Significant p-values are in bold throughout. n = 29 except for body mass where n = 19.c- residual of horn length regressed on body length.