Data from: Poor neuro-motor tuning of the human larynx: comparison of sung and whistled pitch imitation

Vocal imitation is a hallmark of human communication that underlies the capacity to learn to speak and sing. Even so, poor vocal imitation abilities are surprisingly common in the general population, and even expert vocalists cannot match the precision of a musical instrument. Although humans have evolved a greater degree of control over the laryngeal muscles that govern vocal pitch production, this ability may still be underdeveloped compared to control over the articulatory muscles, such as the tongue and lips, volitional control of which emerged earlier in primate evolution. Human participants imitated simple melodies by either singing (i.e., producing pitch with the larynx) or whistling (i.e., producing pitch with the lips and tongue). While participants who sung more precisely also whistled more precisely, sung imitations were less precise than whistled imitations. Furthermore, sung notes were systematically biased towards each individual’s habitual pitch, which may act to conserve muscular effort. The laryngeal muscles that control voice production are under less precise control than the oral muscles that are involved in whistling. This imprecision may be due to the relatively recent evolution of volitional laryngeal-motor control in humans, which may be tuned just well enough for the coarse modulation of vocal-pitch in speech.嗓音模仿（vocal imitation）是人类交流的标志性特征，亦是人类习得言语与歌唱能力的核心基础。即便如此，普通人群中嗓音模仿能力欠佳的情况仍相当普遍，即便专业声乐表演者也无法企及乐器的演奏精度。尽管人类已演化出对调控嗓音音高产生的喉肌（laryngeal muscles）更强的控制能力，但相较于构音肌（articulatory muscles，如舌与唇）的控制能力而言，该能力仍显不足——构音肌的自主控制在灵长类演化历程中出现得更早。 人类被试可通过两种方式模仿简单旋律：一是歌唱（即借助喉肌生成音高），二是口哨（即借助唇与舌生成音高）。尽管歌唱精度更高的被试，其口哨模仿的精度也同样更高，但歌唱式模仿的精度仍不及口哨式模仿。此外，歌唱所发出的音高会系统性地偏向每位被试的习惯性音高，该现象或可通过节省肌肉发力得到解释。调控发声的喉肌，其控制精度低于参与口哨动作的口腔肌肉。这种精度不足或许源于人类自主喉肌运动控制的演化历程相对较新，该系统的适配程度仅足以支持言语中嗓音音高的粗略调控。