Forward testing effect and its mechanisms in children's route learning

This work examines interpolated testing’s effects on children's learning of new route information. A total of 209 first- (N=61; Mage= 6.97 years; 33 boys) third-(N=68; Mage=9.24 years; 37 boys), and fifth-grade (N=75; Mage =11.35 years; 41 boys) children were randomly assigned to either an experimental group with interpolated testing (“Test” group) or a control group without interpolated testing (“Restudy” group). The results showed that interpolated testing for routes 1–3 enhanced children's learning of route 4 (new route information) compared with the Restudy condition. Moreover, interpolated testing enhanced fifth-grade children’s memory retention of route 4 by reducing proactive interference (PI) and mind wandering (MW). In contrast, the testing effect on third-grade children was more related to a reduction in MW, rather than inhibiting PI to promote route 4 learning. The findings revealed the distinct mechanisms of the forward testing effect in route learning at different developmental stages. The data were processed using SPSS 26.0. A 3 (Age Group: first grade, third grade, fifth grade) × 2 (Interim task: test, restudy) analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed a main effect of age on Route 4 interim test recall. 3 × 4 analysis of variances (ANOVA) with the within subjects factor of Route (1, 2, 3, 4) and the between-subjects factor of Age Group (first grade, third grade, fifth grade) .The results indicated that a reduction in MW plays a stable role in the FTE in route learning for first-, third-, and fifth-grade children. The research findings also revealed that in third-grade children, the recall accuracy for route 4 was negatively correlated with MW and PI. However, the results of the mediation analysis showed that only MW played a mediating role. In the context of recalling route 4, children in the Test group exhibited significantly lower levels of MW than those in the Restudy group. This suggests that interpolated testing reduces children's MW and improves subsequent learning by maintaining their attention. Throughout the entire learning process, MW scores decreased significantly in the Test group in subsequent learning stages except for the first grade. Thus, the FTE in route learning among third-grade children is more likely driven by a reduction in MW. In contrast, for fifth-grade children, apart from the recall accuracy for route 4 being negatively correlated with MW scores and PI, the results of the mediation analysis indicated that both PI and MW act as mediating factors. No significant difference was found in the indirect effects of the two mediating variables, with MW scores being slightly higher than the reduction in PI. This suggests that in spatial route learning for fifth-grade children, both the reduction in PI and MW may collectively drive the FTE.本研究考察了插入式测试（interpolated testing）对儿童新路线信息学习的影响。共计209名儿童参与本实验，其中一年级组61名（平均年龄6.97岁，男童33名）、三年级组68名（平均年龄9.24岁，男童37名）、五年级组75名（平均年龄11.35岁，男童41名）；所有被试被随机分配至插入式测试实验组（下称“测试组”）与无插入式测试对照组（下称“重学组”）。结果显示，针对路线1至3开展的插入式测试，相较重学条件，更能提升儿童对路线4（新路线信息）的学习效果。进一步分析表明，插入式测试可通过降低前摄干扰（proactive interference, PI）与思维游荡（mind wandering, MW），提升五年级儿童对路线4的记忆保持水平。与之相对，三年级儿童的测试效应更多与思维游荡水平降低相关，而非通过抑制前摄干扰来促进路线4的学习。本研究结果揭示了不同发展阶段下，路线学习中前向测试效应（forward testing effect, FTE）的独特作用机制。 本研究采用SPSS 26.0进行数据分析。以年龄组别（一年级、三年级、五年级）为被试间因素、插入式任务（测试、重学）为被试间因素的3×2方差分析（analysis of variance, ANOVA）结果显示，年龄对路线4的即时测试回忆存在主效应。另有以路线（1、2、3、4）为被试内因素、年龄组别为被试间因素的3×4方差分析（ANOVA）。结果显示，思维游荡水平的降低在一、三、五年级儿童的路线学习前向测试效应中均发挥稳定作用。研究还发现，三年级儿童的路线4回忆准确率与思维游荡、前摄干扰均呈负相关，但中介分析结果仅显示思维游荡起到了中介作用。在路线4的回忆情境中，测试组儿童的思维游荡水平显著低于重学组儿童。这表明插入式测试可通过维持儿童注意力，降低其思维游荡水平，进而改善后续学习效果。在整个学习过程中，除一年级儿童外，测试组儿童在后续各学习阶段的思维游荡得分均呈显著下降趋势。由此可见，三年级儿童的路线学习前向测试效应更可能由思维游荡水平降低所驱动。与之相对，五年级儿童的路线4回忆准确率不仅与思维游荡得分、前摄干扰均呈负相关，中介分析结果还显示前摄干扰与思维游荡均发挥了中介作用。两种中介变量的间接效应无显著差异，且思维游荡得分的中介效应略高于前摄干扰的降低效应。这表明，在五年级儿童的空间路线学习中，前摄干扰与思维游荡的降低可能共同推动了前向测试效应的产生。