AI is the Dominant, but not Definitive: Technological Tools for Higher Education Self-Directed ESL/EFL

AI-driven tools have proven effective in enhancing ESL/EFL learners’ proficiency and in fostering self-directed learning, yet AI still struggles with cultural nuances and contextual accuracy. Non-AI resources such as instructional videos, LMS platforms, interactive digital tools and corpus-based applications also support autonomy and help bridge AI’s gaps. While AI may yield slightly higher gains in learner self-directedness, the difference isn’t significant, underscoring the value of non-AI methods. An integrated approach that combines the strengths of both AI and non-AI tools offers the most comprehensive support for self-directed ESL/EFL learners. Harnessing insights from 178 empirical studies (2020– 1st Quartile 2025), this dataset maps trending AI and non-AI tools for self-directed ESL/EFL across skills, regions, and learner profiles, and it calls for comparative, longitudinal, and culturally nuanced research into AI/non-AI synergies.