Divergent strategy to supremacy: cranial evolution and evolutionary constraints in Cretaceous apex- and meso-predators

Apex and meso-predators of the Cretaceous exhibited distinct macroevolutionary trajectories, reflecting differential responses to ecological and environmental pressures. However, the role of evolutionary process in shaping macroevolutionary trends of apex and meso-predatory non-avian theropods remains poorly understood. Here, I use the maxillary shape and size, combined with phylogenetic comparative methods, to elucidate distinct macroevolutionary trends among three lineages of larger- and medium-size non-avian theropods (Carcharodontosauria, Abelisauridae, and Coelurosauria). Abelisaurids primarily explored morphological innovation in skull shape while maintaining relatively stable body sizes through time. Carcharodontosaurids, in contrast, followed a size-driven evolutionary path, achieving gigantism while retaining conservative cranial morphologies. Coelurosaurs, particularly tyrannosauroids, adopted a mixed strategy, displaying early cranial modifications during the Jurassic, followed by an explosive increase in body size in the Late Cretaceous. These divergent strategies suggest an initial phase of disruptive selection that promoted morphological divergence, followed by stabilizing selection and phenotypic canalization in the Cretaceous period, ultimately shaping specialized adaptive responses in each clade. Overall, these results highlight how evolutionary history, ecological interactions, and developmental constraints structured the diversification of apex- and meso-predator non-avian theropods, providing insight into the interplay between innovation, constraint, and ecological adaptation in the evolution of large and medium terrestrial carnivores.