Results of the repeatability tests.

In archaeological sciences, the macroscopic morphology of distinct dry bone structures, such as tubercles, ridges, epicondyles, and fossae, is routinely used to infer habitual activity patterns in past human populations, extinct hominins, and other animals. This study introduces “Validated Entheses-based Reconstruction of Activity 2.0” (VERA 2.0), a new method for precisely quantifying 3D surface irregularities on enthesis-bearing bone structures. Building on VERA 1.0, first introduced by the same author in 2016 and later named in a 2021 literature review, VERA 2.0 enhances the previous approach by incorporating a semi-automated image segmentation technique that reduces manual input while maintaining accuracy. The method involves selecting a predefined broad bone surface region, after which an algorithm automatically detects subtle surface irregularities (see example video in the step-by-step protocol at dx.doi.org/10.17504/protocols.io.5jyl82z8dl2w/v3). Validation analyses confirm VERA 2.0’s precision and reliability for activity reconstruction through intra- and inter-observer repeatability tests, experimental research comparing activity and control laboratory specimens, and analyses of historical human skeletons with extensively detailed long-term occupational data. Moreover, while this anthropological 3D measuring protocol paper cannot and does not aim to analyze the anatomical and histological nature of bone surface irregularities, preliminary anatomical dissection and virtual analysis of a cadaveric thumb enthesis suggest a possible association with attaching muscles and ligaments. Future anatomical and histological research aiming to explore soft-hard tissue interactions could clarify how these identified surface changes exactly relate to the attaching tissues. Overall, VERA 2.0 provides a robust, efficient quantitative tool for inferring activity patterns from skeletal remains, with applications across paleontological, paleoanthropological, and bioarchaeological contexts.