Revisiting the Shockley–Queisser Limit: Understanding Solar Cell Efficiency in One Sun and Indoor Environments

We revisit the Shockley–Queisser limit (SQL) to adapt it for modern photovoltaic technologies and indoor illumination conditions. The original SQL, which models an ideal p–n junction as a blackbody (BB) illuminated by the sun as a BB, remains a theoretical benchmark but overlooks key loss mechanisms like nonradiative recombination. By reproducing the SQL and incorporating the external radiative efficiency (ERE), we quantify real-world efficiency losses. Our findings show that GaAs and perovskite solar cells, with minimal nonradiative losses, approach theoretical limits under both AM1.5G and indoor lighting. We also demonstrate that BB intensitymodulated by temperature or geometric factorsshifts optimal efficiency: lower BB temperatures cause a red shift, while reduced geometric factors induce a blue shift. Among artificial sources, LEDs and fluorescents offer the best performance at higher energies, whereas incandescent light favors lower energies. These results highlight the need to minimize nonradiative losses and tailor device design to specific spectral irradiance.我们重新审视肖克利-奎伊瑟极限（Shockley–Queisser limit, SQL），使其适配现代光伏技术与室内照明场景。原SQL将理想pn结建模为受太阳黑体（blackbody, BB）辐照的黑体，虽仍是理论基准，却忽略了非辐射复合等关键损耗机制。通过复现SQL模型并引入外辐射效率（external radiative efficiency, ERE），我们实现了实际能效损耗的量化分析。研究结果表明，非辐射损耗极低的GaAs（砷化镓）与钙钛矿太阳能电池，在AM1.5G光谱与室内照明条件下均趋近理论极限。我们还证实，受温度或几何因素调制的黑体辐照度会改变最优能效区间：更低的黑体温度会引发红移，而几何因子降低则会导致蓝移。在人造光源中，发光二极管（LED）与荧光灯在高能量波段表现最优，而白炽灯则更适配低能量波段。上述结果凸显了最小化非辐射损耗、针对特定光谱辐照度定制器件设计的必要性。