Perpetuating the cycle of violence in South African low-income communities: attraction to violence in young men exposed to continuous threat

Life in the low-income urban communities of South Africa is imprinted by a cycle of violence in which young males predominantly are in the roles of both victim and perpetrator. There is some evidence that adolescents who show an attraction to cruelty can display high levels of psychosocial functioning despite the presence of posttraumatic stress symptoms. However, the role of appetitive aggression in the context of ongoing threats and daily hassles is not yet fully understood. In this study, we examine the role of attraction to violence in areas of continuous traumatic stress exposure and its effect on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) severity and violence perpetration. A sample of 290 young males from two low-income Cape Town communities was surveyed. We assessed appetitive aggression with the Appetitive Aggression Scale (AAS), PTSD symptoms with the PTSD Symptom Scale-Interview, the number of witnessed and self-experienced traumatic event types with an adaptation of the Child Exposure to Community Violence questionnaire, and the number of perpetrated violence event types with an adapted offence checklist from the AAS. Appetitive aggression scores were predicted by witnessed as well as self-experienced traumatic events. Higher appetitive aggression scores resulted in higher levels of PTSD severity and perpetrated violence. Young males living in the low-income areas of South Africa may develop an attraction to cruelty in response to exposure to violence. Their willingness to fight in turn can increase the likelihood of continued violent behaviour. In contrast to previous research from postconflict areas, appetitive aggression and engagement in violence do not prevent the development of PTSD, but are instead associated with higher levels of posttraumatic stress. PTSD symptoms such as avoidance and hyperarousal, as well as an attraction to cruelty and thus the willingness to fight, might support survival in areas of ongoing conflict, but at the same time they could fuel the cycle of violence.南非低收入城市社区的生活被暴力循环所形塑，其中年轻男性在绝大多数情况下同时充当受害者与施暴者的双重角色。有研究证据表明，部分对残忍行为抱有偏好的青少年，即便存在创伤后应激症状，仍可表现出较高水平的社会心理功能。然而，在持续威胁与日常困扰的背景下，快感型攻击（appetitive aggression）所扮演的角色尚未得到充分阐释。本研究旨在探讨持续创伤应激暴露环境下，对暴力行为的偏好所扮演的角色，及其对创伤后应激障碍（posttraumatic stress disorder, PTSD）严重程度与暴力施暴行为的影响。本研究对来自开普敦两个低收入社区的290名年轻男性进行了调查。我们采用快感型攻击量表（Appetitive Aggression Scale, AAS）评估受试者的快感型攻击水平；采用创伤后应激症状量表-访谈版（PTSD Symptom Scale-Interview）评估其创伤后应激症状；通过改编版《儿童社区暴力暴露问卷》（Child Exposure to Community Violence questionnaire）统计受试者目击与亲身经历的创伤事件类型数量；并采用改编自AAS的犯罪行为清单，统计其实施暴力行为的类型数量。目击创伤事件与亲身经历的创伤事件均可预测快感型攻击得分。快感型攻击得分越高，受试者的PTSD严重程度与暴力施暴程度也越高。居住在南非低收入社区的年轻男性，在接触暴力环境后，可能会逐渐形成对残忍行为的偏好。而他们的好战意愿反过来又会提升持续实施暴力行为的概率。与以往冲突后地区的相关研究结论不同，快感型攻击与暴力参与行为并不会阻碍PTSD的发生，反而与更高水平的创伤后应激症状相关。诸如回避与过度觉醒等PTSD症状，以及对残忍行为的偏好（进而催生好战意愿），或许能帮助个体在持续冲突的环境中存活，但与此同时也可能加剧暴力循环。