Trade-offs among ecosystem services under agricultural diversification practices: a second-order meta-analysis

Agricultural diversification practices are widely used as a pathway to sustainable crop yield, yet integrated and multidimensional assessments of its trade-offs among ecosystem services remain limited. We synthesized 78 published meta-analyses with a reported sample size of 54426 to evaluate the effect of agroforestry, cover crops, cultivar mixture, crop rotation, and intercropping across biodiversity, carbon sequestration, climate-forcing proxies, soil functioning, water regulation, crop yield, and pest, disease, and weed suppression. This database included the second-order meta-analysis data used in this study, as well as corrected covered area (CCA) data statistics.