Monitoring protected areas from space: A multi-temporal assessment using raptors as biodiversity surrogates

Monitoring protected areas (PAs) is essential for systematic evaluation of their effectiveness in terms of habitat protection, preservation and representativeness. This study illustrates how the use of species distribution models that combine remote sensing data and information about biodiversity surrogates can contribute to develop a systematic protocol for monitoring PAs. In particular, we assessed the effectiveness of the Natura 2000 (N2000) network, for conserving and preserving the representativeness of seven raptor species in a highly-dynamic landscape in northwest Spain between 2001 and 2014. We also evaluated the cost-effectiveness of the N2000 network by using the total area under protection as a proxy for conservation costs. Overall, the N2000 network was found to poorly represent the habitats of the raptor species. Despite the low representativeness, this network showed a high degree of effectiveness due to increased overall habitat availability for generalist and forest specialist species between 2001 and 2014. Nevertheless, additional protected areas should be established in the near future to increase their representativeness, and thus ensure the protection of open-habitat specialist species and their priority habitats. In addition, proactive conservation measures in natural and semi-natural ecosystems (in particular, montane heathlands) will be essential for long-term protection of Montagu’s harrier (species listed in the Annex I of the Bird Directive), and thus complying with the current European Environmental Legislation. This study sheds light on how the development and application of new protected area indices based on the combined use of freely-available satellite data and species distribution models may contribute substantially to the cost-efficiency of the PA monitoring systems, and to the ‘Fitness Check’ process of EU Nature Directives.对保护区（Protected Areas，PAs）开展监测工作，是系统评估其在栖息地保护、物种留存及生态代表性维度实施成效的核心前提。本研究阐明了结合遥感数据与生物多样性替代物信息的物种分布模型，如何助力构建一套系统化的保护区监测规程。具体而言，本研究以西班牙西北部高度动态的景观为研究区域，评估了2001至2014年间Natura 2000（N2000）保护地网络在保护7种猛禽的栖息地代表性与物种留存方面的成效。同时，本研究以受保护总面积作为保护成本的替代指标，评估了N2000网络的成本效益。整体而言，N2000网络对上述猛禽物种的栖息地代表性表现不佳。尽管代表性不足，但得益于2001至2014年间广适性物种与森林专性物种的整体栖息地可获得性提升，该网络仍展现出较高的保护成效。不过，未来仍需增设新的保护区以提升其代表性，进而保障开阔生境专性物种及其优先栖息地的保护。此外，针对自然与半自然生态系统（尤其是山地石楠荒原）采取主动保护措施，对长期保护蒙塔古鹞（列入《鸟类指令》附件一的物种）至关重要，也符合当前欧盟环境立法的要求。本研究揭示了基于免费公开卫星数据与物种分布模型构建新型保护区评价指标的方法，可显著提升保护区监测系统的成本效益，并助力欧盟《自然指令》的“Fitness Check”流程。