Geology and geomorphology--Offshore of Point Reyes Map Map Area, California

This part of DS 781 presents data for the geologic and geomorphic map of the Offshore of Point Reyes map area, California. The vector data file is included in "Geology_OffshorePointReyes.zip," which is accessible from http://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/781/OffshorePointReyes/data_catalog_OffshorePointReyes.html.

Marine geology and geomorphology was mapped in the Offshore of Point Reyes map area from approximate Mean High Water (MHW) to the 3-nautical-mile limit of California’s State Waters. MHW is defined at an elevation of 1.46 m above the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88) (Weber and others, 2005). Offshore geologic units were delineated on the basis of integrated analyses of adjacent onshore geology with multibeam bathymetry and backscatter imagery, seafloor-sediment and rock samples (Reid and others, 2006), digital camera and video imagery, and high-resolution seismic-reflection profiles.

The onshore bedrock mapping was compiled from Galloway (1977), Clark and Brabb (1997), and Wagner and Gutierrez (2010). Quaternary mapping was compiled from Witter and others (2006) and Wagner and Gutierrez (2010), with unit contacts modified based on analysis of 2012 LiDAR imagery; and additional Quaternary mapping by M.W. Manson.

The morphology and the geology of the Offshore of Point Reyes map area result from the interplay between tectonics, sea-level rise, local sedimentary processes, and oceanography. The Point Reyes Fault Zone runs through the map area and is an offshore curvilinear reverse Fault Zone (Hoskins and Griffiths, 1971; McCulloch, 1987; Heck and others, 1990; Stozek, 2012) that likely connects with the western San Gregorio fault further to the south (Ryan and others, 2008), making it part of the San Andreas Fault System. The Point Reyes Fault Zone is characterized by a 5 to 11 km-wide zone that is associated with two main fault structures, the Point Reyes Fault and the Western Point Reyes Fault (fig. 1).

Tectonic influences impacting shelf morphology and geology are related to local faulting, folding, uplift, and subsidence. Granitic basement rocks are offset about 1.4 km on the Point Reyes thrust fault offshore of the Point Reyes headland (McCulloch, 1987), and this uplift combined with west-side-up offset of the San Andreas Fault (Grove and Niemi, 2005) resulted in uplift of the Point Reyes Peninsula, including the adjacent Bodega and Tomales shelf. The Western Point Reyes Fault is defined by a broad anticlinal structure visible in both industry and high-resolution seismic datasets and exhibits that same sense of vergence as the Point Reyes Fault. The deformation associated with north-side-up motion across the Point Reyes Fault Zone has resulted in a distinct bathymetric gradient across the Point Reyes Fault, with a shallow bedrock platform to the north and east, and a deeper bedrock platform to the south.

Late Pleistocene uplift of marine terraces on the southern Point Reyes Peninsula suggests active deformation west of the San Andreas Fault (Grove and others, 2010) on offshore structures. The Point Reyes Fault and related structures may be responsible for this recent uplift of the Point Reyes Peninsula, however, the distribution and age control of Pleistocene strata in the Offshore of Point Reyes map area is not well constrained and therefore it is difficult to directly link the uplift onshore with the offshore Point Reyes Fault structures. Pervasive stratal thinning within inferred uppermost Pliocene and Pleistocene (post-Purisima) units above the Western Point Reyes Fault anticline suggests Quaternary active shortening above a curvilinear northeast to north-dipping Point Reyes Fault zone. Lack of clear deformation within the uppermost Pleistocene and Holocene unit suggests activity along the Point Reyes Fault zone has diminished or slowed since 21,000 years ago. In this map area the cumulative (post-Miocene) slip-rate on the Point Reyes Fault Zone is poorly constrained, but is estimated to be 0.3 mm/yr based on vertical offset of granitic basement rocks (McCulloch, 1987; Wills and others, 2008).

With the exception of the bathymetric gradient across the Point Reyes Fault, the offshore part of this map area is largely characterized by a relatively flat (<0.8°) bedrock platform. The continental shelf is quite wide in this area, with the shelfbreak located west of the Farallon high , about 35 km offshore. Sea level has risen about 125 to 130 m over about the last 21,000 years (for example, Lambeck and Chappell, 2001; Peltier and Fairbanks, 2005), leading to broadening of the continental shelf, progressive eastward migration of the shoreline and wave-cut platform, and associated transgressive erosion and deposition (for example, Catuneanu, 2006). Land-derived sediment was carried into this dynamic setting, and then subjected to full Pacific Ocean wave energy and strong currents before deposition or offshore transport.

Much of the inner shelf bedrock platform is composed of Tertiary marine sedimentary rocks, which are underlain by Salinian granitic and metamorphic basement rocks, including the Late Cretaceous porphyritic granite (unit Kgg), which outcrops on the seafloor south of the Point Reyes headland. Unit Kgg appears complexly fractured, similar to onshore exposures, with a distinct massive, bulbous texture in multibeam imagery. The Tertiary strata overlying the granite form the core of the Point Reyes syncline (Weaver, 1949) and include the early Eocene Point Reyes Conglomerate (unit Tpr), mid- to late Miocene Monterey Formation (unit Tm), late Miocene Santa Margarita Formation (unit Tsm), late Miocene Santa Cruz Mudstone (unit Tsc), and late Miocene to early Pliocene Purisima Formation (unit Tp). The Point Reyes Conglomerate is exposed on the seafloor adjacent to onshore outcrops on the Point Reyes headland and has a distinct massive texture with some bedding planes visible, but the strata are highly fractured. Based on stratigraphic correlations from seismic reflection data and onshore wells, combined with multibeam imagery, we infer rocks of the early Eocene Point Reyes Conglomerate extend at least 6 km northwest from onshore exposures at Point Reyes headland. The absence of unit Tsc in onshore wells (Clark and Brabb, 1997) suggests these rocks are unlikely to occur within the Tertiary section of this map area, north of the Point Reyes Fault. In this map area, unit Tu represents seafloor outcrops of a middle Miocene to upper Pliocene sequence overlying unit Tpr, that may include units Tm, Tsm, and Tp. Seafloor exposures of unit Tu are characterized by distinct rhythmic bedding where beds are dipping and by a mottled texture where those beds become flat-lying.

Modern nearshore sediments are mostly sand (unit Qms and Qsw) and a mix of sand, gravel, and cobbles (units Qmsc and Qmsd). The more coarse-grained sands and gravels (units Qmsc and Qmsd) are primarily recognized on the basis of bathymetry and high backscatter. The emergent bedrock platform north and west of the Point Reyes headland is heavily scoured, resulting in large areas of unit Qmsc and associated Qmsd. Both Qmsc and Qmsd typically have abrupt landward contacts with bedrock and form irregular to lenticular exposures that are commonly elongate in the shore-normal direction. Contacts between units Qmsc and Qms are typically gradational. Unit Qmsd forms erosional lags in scoured depressions that are bounded by relatively sharp and less commonly diffuse contacts with unit Qms horizontal sand sheets. These depressions are typically a few tens of centimeters deep and range in size from a few 10's of meters to more than 1 km2.

There is an area of high-backscatter, and rough seafloor southeast of the Point Reyes headland that is notable in that it includes several small, irregular "lumps", with as much as 1 m of positive relief above the seafloor (unit Qsr). Unit Qsr occurs in water depths between 50 and 60 meters, with individual lumps randomly distributed to west-trending. This area on seismic-reflection data shows this lumpy material rests on several meters of latest Pleistocene to Holocene sediment and is thus not bedrock outcrop. Rather, it seems likely that this lumpy material is marine debris, possibly derived from one (or more) of the more than 60 shipwrecks offshore of the Point Reyes Peninsula between 1849 and 1940 (National Park Service, 2012). It is also conceivable that this lumpy terrane consists of biological "hardgrounds". Video transect data crossing unit Qsr near the Point Reyes headland was of insufficient quality to distinguish between these above alternatives.

A transition to more fine-grained marine sediments (unit Qmsf) occurs around 50–60 m depth within most of the map area, however, directly south and east of Drakes Estero, backscatter and seafloor sediment samples (Chin and others, 1997) suggest fine-grained sediments extend into water depths as shallow as 30 m. Unit Qmsf is commonly extensively bioturbated and consists primarily of mud and muddy sand. These fine-grained sediments are inferred to have been derived from the Drakes Estero estuary or from the San Francisco Bay to the south, via predominantly northwest flow at the seafloor (Noble and Gelfenbaum, 1990).

References Cited

Catuneanu, O., 2006, Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy: Amsterdam, Elsevier, 375 p.
Chin, J.L., Karl, H.A., and Maher, N.M., 1997, Shallow subsurface geology of the continental shelf, Gulf of the Farallones, California, and its relationship to surficial seafloor characteristics: Marine Geology, v. 137, p. 251-269.

Clark, J.C., and Brabb, E.E., 1997, Geology of the Point Reyes National Seashore and vicinity: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 97-456, scale 1:48,000.
Galloway, A.J., 1977, Geology of the Point Reyes Peninsula Marin County, California: California Geological Survey Bulletin 202, scale 1:24,000.

Grove, K. and Niemi, T., 2005, Late Quaternary deformation and slip rates in the northern San Andreas fault zone at Olema Valley, Marin County, California: Tectonophysics, v. 401, p. 231-250.

Grove, K., Sklar, L.S., Scherer, A.M., Lee, G., and Davis, J., 2010, Accelerating and spatially-varying crustal uplift and its geomorphic expression, San Andreas Fault zone north of San Francisco, California: Tectonophysics, v. 495, p. 256-268.

Heck, R.G., Edwards, E.B., Kronen, J.D., Jr., and Willingham, C.R., 1990, Petroleum potential of the offshore outer Santa Cruz and Bodega basins, California, in Garrison, R.E., Greene, H.G., Hicks, K.R., Weber, G.E., and Wright, T.L., eds. Geology and tectonics of the central California coastal region, San Francisco to Monterey: Pacific Section, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin GB67, p. 143-164.

Hoskins E.G., Griffiths, J.R., 1971, Hydrocarbon potential of northern and central California offshore: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 15, p. 212-228.

Lambeck, K., and Chappell, J., 2001, Sea level change through the last glacial cycle: Science, v. 292, p. 679-686, doi: 10.1126/science.1059549.

McCulloch, D.S., 1987, Regional geology and hydrocarbon potential of offshore Central California, in Scholl, D.W., Grantz, A., and Vedder, J.G., eds., Geology and resource potential of the continental margin of Western North America and adjacent ocean basins Beaufort Sea to Baja California: Circum-Pacific Council for Energy and Mineral Resources Earth Science Series, v. 6, p. 353-401.

National Park Service, 2012, Shipwrecks at Point Reyes, available at: http://www.nps.gov/pore/historyculture/upload/map_shipwrecks.pdf

Noble, M.A. and Gelfenbaum, G., 1990, A pilot study of currents and suspended sediment in the Gulf of the Farallones: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 90-476, 30 p.

Peltier, W.R., and Fairbanks, R.G., 2006, Global glacial ice volume and Last Glacial Maximum duration from an extended Barbados sea level record: Quaternary Science Reviews, v. 25, p. 3,322-3,337.

Reid, J.A., Reid, J.M., Jenkins, C.J., Zimmerman, M., Williams, S.J., and Field, M.E., 2006, usSEABED Pacific Coast (California, Oregon, Washington) offshore surficial-sediment data release: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 182, available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/2006/182/.

Ryan, H.F., Parsons, T., and Sliter, R.W., 2008, Vertical tectonic deformation associated with the San Andreas Fault offshore of San Francisco, California: Tectonophysics, v. 475, p. 209-223.

Stozek, B.A., 2012, Geophysical evidence for Quaternary deformation within the offshore San Andreas fault system, northern California: Masters Thesis, San Francisco State University, 141 p.

Wagner, D.L., and Gutierrez, C.I., 2010, Preliminary Geologic Map of the Napa 30’ x 60’ Quadrangle, California: California Geological Survey, scale 1:100,000.

Weber, K.M., List, J.H., and Morgan, K.L., 2005, An operational Mean High Water datum for determination of shoreline position from topographic lidar data: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005 1027, accessed April 5, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1027/.

Wills, C.J., Weldon, R.J., II, and Bryant, W.A., 2008, Appendix A California fault parameters for the National Seismic Hazard Maps and Working Group on California Earthquake Probabilities 2007: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007 1437A, 48 p., available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1437/a/.

Witter, R.C., Knudsen, K.L., Sowers, J.M., Wentworth, C.M., Koehler, R.D., Randolph, C.E., Brooks, S.K., and Gans, K.D., 2006, Maps of Quaternary Deposits and Liquefaction Susceptibility in the Central San Francisco Bay Region, California, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 06-1037, scale 1:24,000.Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, v. 95, p. 861-877.

本数据系列781（DS 781）的此部分提供了加利福尼亚州雷耶斯角近海制图区的地质与地貌图数据。矢量数据文件包含于"Geology_OffshorePointReyes.zip"中，可通过http://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/781/OffshorePointReyes/data_catalog_OffshorePointReyes.html获取。

雷耶斯角近海制图区的海洋地质与地貌测绘范围大致从平均高潮线（Mean High Water, MHW）至加利福尼亚州州域海域3海里界限。平均高潮线（MHW）被定义为相对于1988年北美垂直基准面（North American Vertical Datum of 1988, NAVD 88）高程1.46 m的位置（Weber等人，2005）。近海地质单元的圈定基于邻区陆上地质、多波束测深与反向散射影像、海底沉积物与岩石样品（Reid等人，2006）、数码相机与视频影像，以及高分辨率地震反射剖面的综合分析。

陆上基岩制图综合自Galloway（1977）、Clark与Brabb（1997）以及Wagner与Gutierrez（2010）的成果。第四系制图综合自Witter等人（2006）与Wagner及Gutierrez（2010）的成果，地层接触关系依据2012年激光雷达（LiDAR）影像分析进行了修正，另包含M.W. Manson完成的补充第四系填图。

雷耶斯角近海制图区的地貌与地质特征是构造作用、海平面上升、局部沉积过程与海洋动力学相互作用的结果。雷耶斯断裂带（Point Reyes Fault Zone）贯穿制图区，为一条近海弧形逆冲断裂带（Hoskins与Griffiths，1971；McCulloch，1987；Heck等人，1990；Stozek，2012），其向南可能与西侧圣安德烈亚斯断层相连（Ryan等人，2008），属于圣安德烈亚斯断层体系（San Andreas Fault System）的一部分。雷耶斯断裂带宽5~11 km，包含两个主要断裂构造：雷耶斯断裂与雷耶斯西断裂（图1）。

影响陆架地貌与地质的构造作用包括局部断裂、褶皱、抬升与沉降。雷耶斯岬近海的雷耶斯逆冲断层使花岗岩基底岩石错移约1.4 km（McCulloch，1987），结合圣安德烈亚斯断层西盘抬升的作用（Grove与Niemi，2005），造成了雷耶斯半岛及相邻的博德加与托马利斯陆架的抬升。雷耶斯西断裂表现为一个广泛发育的背斜构造，可在工业与高分辨率地震数据集内识别，其运动指向与雷耶斯断裂一致。雷耶斯断裂带的北盘抬升变形在雷耶斯断裂沿线形成了显著的水深梯度：北侧与东侧为较浅的基岩台地，南侧则为更深的基岩台地。

雷耶斯半岛南部的海蚀阶地晚更新世抬升表明，圣安德烈亚斯断层西侧（Grove等人，2010）的近海构造存在活跃变形。雷耶斯断裂及相关构造可能是雷耶斯半岛近期抬升的成因，但雷耶斯角近海制图区内更新统地层的分布与年代约束尚不明确，因此难以直接将陆上抬升与近海雷耶斯断裂构造建立直接关联。雷耶斯西断裂背斜上方推断的上新统顶部与更新统（普里西马组之后）地层普遍存在地层减薄现象，表明东北至北倾的弧形雷耶斯断裂带上方存在第四纪活跃挤压作用。最顶部的更新统与全新统地层未显示明显变形，表明雷耶斯断裂带的活动自21000年前以来已减弱或停滞。本制图区内雷耶斯断裂带的累计（中新世以来）滑动速率约束不足，依据花岗岩基底岩石的垂直错距估算为0.3 mm/yr（McCulloch，1987；Wills等人，2008）。

除雷耶斯断裂沿线的水深梯度外，本制图区的近海部分整体表现为相对平缓（坡度<0.8°）的基岩台地。本区域的大陆架相当宽阔，陆架坡折位于法拉隆高地以西，离岸约35 km。过去约21000年间，海平面上升了约125~130 m（如Lambeck与Chappell，2001；Peltier与Fairbanks，2005），导致大陆架拓宽、海岸线与浪蚀台地逐步向东迁移，并伴随海侵侵蚀与沉积作用（如Catuneanu，2006）。陆源沉积物被搬运至这一动力环境中，在沉积或离岸搬运前经受了太平洋完整的波浪能量与强流作用。

大部分内陆架基岩台地由第三纪海相沉积岩组成，其下伏为萨利尼亚花岗岩与变质基底岩，包括在雷耶斯岬以南海底出露的晚白垩世斑状花岗岩（Kgg单元）。Kgg单元展现出与陆上露头类似的复杂破碎特征，在多波束影像中呈现显著的块状、球状纹理。覆盖于花岗岩之上的第三系地层构成了雷耶斯向斜的核部（Weaver，1949），包括始新世早期雷耶斯砾岩（Tpr单元）、中至中新世蒙特雷组（Tm单元）、晚中新世圣玛丽亚组（Tsm单元）、晚中新世圣克鲁斯泥岩（Tsc单元）以及晚中新世至上新世早期普里西马组（Tp单元）。雷耶斯砾岩在雷耶斯岬陆上露头附近的海底出露，呈现块状纹理，可见部分层理面，但地层破碎程度极高。依据地震反射数据与陆上钻井的地层对比，并结合多波束影像，我们推断始新世早期雷耶斯砾岩至少从雷耶斯岬陆上露头向西北延伸6 km。陆上钻井未发现Tsc单元（Clark与Brabb，1997），表明本制图区雷耶斯断裂以北的第三系剖面中不太可能存在该地层。本制图区内的Tu单元代表覆盖于Tpr单元之上的中中新世至上新世序列的海底露头，可能包含Tm、Tsm与Tp单元。Tu单元的海底露头特征为：倾斜地层呈现显著的韵律层理，平缓地层则呈现斑驳纹理。

现代近岸沉积物以砂质为主（Qms与Qsw单元），另有砂、砾与卵石混合沉积物（Qmsc与Qmsd单元）。较粗粒的砂与砾石沉积物（Qmsc与Qmsd单元）主要依据测深与高反向散射特征识别。雷耶斯岬北侧与西侧出露的基岩台地遭受强烈冲刷，形成了大片Qmsc单元与伴生的Qmsd单元。Qmsc与Qmsd单元通常与基岩呈突变接触，形成不规则至透镜状露头，常垂直于海岸方向延伸。Qmsc与Qms单元之间的接触通常为渐变过渡。Qmsd单元形成于冲刷洼地的侵蚀滞留沉积，与Qms单元的水平砂质席状沉积之间以相对清晰、偶尔弥散的接触为界。这些洼地通常深数十厘米，规模从数十平方米至超过1 km²不等。

雷耶斯岬东南侧存在一片高反向散射、海底地形崎岖的区域，其显著特征是包含数个小型不规则的“丘状凸起”，相对海底高程可达1 m（Qsr单元）。Qsr单元分布于50~60 m水深区间内，单个丘体随机分布，整体呈北西向延伸。地震反射数据显示，这些丘状物质覆于数米厚的晚更新世至全新世沉积物之上，因此并非基岩露头。相反，这些丘状物质更可能为海洋碎屑，可能源自1849年至1940年间雷耶斯半岛近海超过60艘沉船中的一艘或多艘（国家公园管理局，2012）。也有可能该丘状沉积体为生物成因的“硬底质”。穿越雷耶斯岬附近Qsr单元的视频样带数据质量不足，无法区分上述两种成因。

在本制图区的大部分区域，水深约50~60 m处出现向更细粒海相沉积物（Qmsf单元）的过渡。但在德雷克湾（Drakes Estero）南侧与东侧，反向散射与海底沉积物样品（Chin等人，1997）显示细粒沉积物可延伸至浅至30 m的水深。Qmsf单元通常发育强烈的生物扰动构造，主要由泥质与泥质砂组成。这些细粒沉积物被推断源自德雷克湾河口或南部的旧金山湾，主要通过海底西北向流搬运（Noble与Gelfenbaum，1990）。

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