Antimicrobial Properties and Mode of Action of the Pyrrothine Holomycin

Holomycin, a member of the pyrrothine class of antibiotics, displayed broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, inhibiting a variety of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, with the exception of Enterobacter cloacae, Morganella morganii, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The antibiotic lacked activity against the eukaryotic microorganisms Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida kefyr. Holomycin exhibited a bacteriostatic response against Escherichia coli that was associated with rapid inhibition of RNA synthesis in whole cells. Inhibition of RNA synthesis could have been a secondary consequence of inhibiting tRNA aminoacylation, thereby inducing the stringent response. However, the levels of inhibition of RNA synthesis by holomycin were similar in a stringent and relaxed pair of E. coli strains that were isogenic except for the deletion of the relA gene. This suggests that inhibition of RNA synthesis by holomycin could reflect direct inhibition of DNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Examination of the effects of holomycin on the kinetics of the appearance of β-galactosidase in induced E. coli cells was also consistent with inhibition of RNA polymerase at the level of RNA chain elongation. However, holomycin only weakly inhibited E. coli RNA polymerase in assays using synthetic poly(dA-dT) and plasmid templates. Furthermore, inhibition of RNA polymerase was observed only at holomycin concentrations in excess of those required to inhibit the growth of E. coli. It is possible that holomycin is a prodrug, requiring conversion in the cell to an active species that inhibits RNA polymerase.