Data_Sheet_1_Conserved and Divergent Aspects of Plasticity and Sexual Dimorphism in Wing Size and Shape in Three Diptera.PDF

The ability of powered flight in insects facilitated their great evolutionary success allowing them to occupy various ecological niches. Beyond this primary task, wings are often involved in various premating behaviors, such as the generation of courtship songs and the initiation of mating in flight. These specific functions imply special adaptations of wing morphology, as well as sex-specific wing morphologies. Although wing morphology has been extensively studied in Drosophila melanogaster (Meigen, 1830), a comprehensive understanding of developmental plasticity and the impact of sex on wing size and shape plasticity is missing for other Diptera. Therefore, we raised flies of the three Diptera species Drosophila melanogaster, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann, 1824) and Musca domestica (Linnaeus, 1758) at different environmental conditions and applied geometric morphometrics to analyze wing shape. Our data showed extensive interspecific differences in wing shape, as well as a clear sexual wing shape dimorphism in all three species. We revealed an impact of different rearing temperatures on wing shape in all three species, which was mostly explained by plasticity in wing size in D. melanogaster. Rearing densities had significant effects on allometric wing shape in D. melanogaster, while no obvious effects were observed for the other two species. Additionally, we did not find evidence for sex-specific response to different rearing conditions in D. melanogaster and C. capitata, while a male-specific impact of different rearing conditions was observed on non-allometric wing shape in M. domestica. Overall, our data strongly suggests that many aspects of wing morphology underly species-specific adaptations and we discuss potential developmental and functional implications of our results.

昆虫的动力飞行能力助力其取得了巨大的演化成功，使其得以占据各类生态位。除这一核心功能外，昆虫翅膀还常参与多种交配前行为，例如生成求偶鸣曲以及启动飞行中的交配行为。这些特殊功能意味着翅膀形态需要产生特化适应，同时也存在翅形的性二态特征。尽管学界已对黑腹果蝇（Drosophila melanogaster, Meigen, 1830）的翅膀形态开展了大量研究，但对于其他双翅目（Diptera）昆虫，我们仍缺乏对其发育可塑性以及性别对翅大小和形状可塑性影响的全面认知。为此，我们在不同环境条件下饲养了三种双翅目昆虫：黑腹果蝇（Drosophila melanogaster, Meigen, 1830）、地中海实蝇（Ceratitis capitata, Wiedemann, 1824）以及家蝇（Musca domestica, Linnaeus, 1758），并运用几何形态测量学分析其翅形。我们的数据显示，三种昆虫的翅形均存在显著的种间差异，且所有物种均表现出明确的翅形性二态性。我们发现，饲养温度对三种昆虫的翅形均存在影响，其中黑腹果蝇的翅形变化主要由翅大小的可塑性所解释。饲养密度对黑腹果蝇的异速翅形存在显著影响，但对另外两个物种未观察到明显作用。此外，我们未发现黑腹果蝇和地中海实蝇存在针对不同饲养条件的性别特异性响应，但在家蝇中，不同饲养条件对其非异速翅形存在雄性特异性影响。综上，我们的数据有力表明，翅形态的诸多特征均存在物种特异性适应，本文最后还讨论了本研究结果在发育与功能层面的潜在意义。